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Although online and offline experiences are quite different In practice, the goal remains the same. The mall purpose of the boutique and the website Is to create a unique and unforgettable experience for the customer. Smart brand marketers are the ones who realism luxury always was and always will be about the relationships. Luxury Interactive helps you advance the integration of traditional and interactive marketing strategies to create exceptional customer experiences, keeping your brand top of mind with your customers. Location Central London Hotel AttendeesLuxury executives in the following areas: Sales & Marketing, marketing, commerce, Interactive, Strategic Planning, Branding & Brand Management, PR & Advertising, Business Development, Corporate Communications, Strategic Partnerships, Customer Relationship Management & Loyalty Marketing, Interactive Campaign Management. History of Event Landmark 3/10 – 3/13 2008 El Meridian Piccadilly 03/16 – 03/18 2009 Decision Da te 9/30/09 What to include in Proposal Dates, Meeting Space outline with Room Names, Floor Plans, Menus, Meeting Space Rental, Distance to Metro Date Options 05/11 -05/13 2010Space Needs Days are flexible as long as no meetings are on Friday Monday 2 Offices Setup for Conference needs to be 110 Pl in crescent rounds with Stage, Riser and room for podium and panel table. (these people really like to spread out there papers and Interact in a table format) Setup to start at pm – 24 hour hold Exalt Setup to take place for 10 xx booths that need to be next to General Session this would need a setup of pm with 24 hold till breakdown on Wednesday at pm. Tuesday Conference Starts at am – pm needs to be set In crescent rounds for 110 Pl with

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Being famous Isn't always as great as Its made out to be; It also comes with a variety of effects. Some examples of famous people who may be dealing with these effects are Rappers, Professional Athletes, and Talk Show Host. Famous people are always being harassed and bothered; whether it is by a fan or paparazzi, they never get a break. It is rear to be a celebrity and stay under the map; the radar is always on and its focused on them.The effects of being a famous actor are loss of privacy, schedule issues, and demeanor. To begin with, one of the main effects of being a famous actor is privacy. At no point in time are actors honestly every alone. Everywhere they go and everything they do Is always watched closely. For example, fans and paparazzi are always harassing famous celebrity. How much can an actor do with paparazzi trying to take pictures of every move they make? Along with the paparazzi you also have stalkers who play a big role In the loss of privacy celebrities lose.Stalke rs are everywhere you expect them not to be; they pop up Instantly almost like a virus and tart attacking you mentally and even sometimes even physically. Another thing that may affect famous actors privacy are rumors. The presses along with other huge media news broadcasting companies tend to like to spread rumors. Rumors can have a huge impact on anyone's life; especially famous people because all the rumors made about them expand in the public quickly.Whether the rumors are true or not, they still are an invasion of celebrities privacy. Famous actors being harassed and stalked can also put their own security in danger. For example, when paparazzi take pictures they are usually posted online or shown on television. If a stalker or a criminal Is familiar with the viewed location In the picture, they may now be able to harm or Intimidate that celebrity. Privacy Is a very Important part of everyone's life and being a famous actor can affect that.Incidentally, another effect of being a famous actor is scheduling. At most times in a professional acting career or any career at all in particular, people are constantly busy with work. Actors usually perform in movies, plays, or television shows. The process to do the following is not a short process, not in the slightest bit. With this being said, famous actors lose arsenal time for their selves. Actors are not able to do too much of what they want to do; instead they often have to do much of what's need to be done.Most people in the world are able to enjoy their selves throughout the week; celebrities can't because their schedules are so strict. Another effect of being a famous actor is incomplete work. With a schedule that is so filled pack with things that need to be done, It can be hard for some actors to complete certain task. For example, say an actor has a movie to shoot and It will take all day. Also say the actor has a meeting that's mandatory hat will make him or her lose out on money If they don't go, How will the famous meaning that some task may end incomplete.To change the topic, one final effect of being a famous actor is demeanor. Demeanor is very important if being a celebrity. Eyes everywhere are on celebrities at all times; some may not even know. Being a famous actor come with responsibility. Children, Teens, and Adults look towards celebrities as role models. Role models are usually someone that other look up too and want to be. If famous actors are not showing that they can be a role model, they ay lose fans instantly. Another effect that goes along with that is personal image.Personal image is also a huge situation that can affect a famous actor; image is the first thing that people Judge others off when they don't know them. If a celebrity image isn't good, in some cases people may think they aren't good. This can now affect the amount of fans they have and how much money they bring in. A famous persons attitude can also affect him or her in huge way. If a celebrity att itude is bad, people may tend to not like them. For example, if someone was to ask a actor for their autograph and they were disrespectful and said no, that actor would lose fans and money.In conclusion, being a famous actor comes with many effects. Once a actor reaches that high level of popularity their life is no longer only theirs. Everybody, everywhere, will know everything about you; its almost like the rolling camera never stops. It can sometimes be an amazing opportunity, but it still comes with its effects. Being a celebrity means giving up privacy, scheduling issues, and demeanor. Is becoming a famous actor really worth the effects it comes with? I believe the choice is up to the upcoming actors to make.

A Corner of the Universe Essay

â€Å"He was called lots of names. And that was one of the things that made it hard to be Adam. Hattie (pig. 177) Like I said sooner or lat r friendships will be made, and new memories will be made. All through the book Hatter's grandparents were always trying to live in this little â€Å"perfect life†, but as we know life isn't perfect, and with life comes challenge gees and their challenge was dealing with Adam. Dealing with Adam is tough because h e was mentally disabled, and also when others would pick on Adam or things would NT go his way he'd get upset, and this would somehow ruin the routine Of his parent's † perfect lives†. One quote that states this is, â€Å"Maybe Nana and Papa think he doesn't fit in there.Certainly, he is not part of the perfect world Nana has worked so hard to cream et. † Hattie (pig. 34) This quote means that even if Adam is their son he isn't â€Å"perfect t†. At first this does bother Adam, but then he realizes that h e has Hattie and Leila (Leila sis character met further on in the book) and he is fine with that. When you look back at all the things you have done with your friends all that is there is memories of your past that you have shared together. In the b ask â€Å"A Corner of the Universe†, Adam, Hattie, and Leila have an â€Å"adventure† with one another.The quote that states that is, â€Å"Oh, Oh, what an adventure, Hattie Owen! An ad Venture indeed. (pig. 127) Adam is overjoyed about the â€Å"adventure† he is going to have with Hattie and Leila, he can't wait. With our friends we share experiences that can never be replaced that is why friendships hold such a precious value. Overall friendships hold a value like no other, that even gold's value is nothing when compared to a long lasting closeness. With friendships people h eave experiences, just like Adam did with Hattie and Leila. Also with that pact you f arm a bond that can never be broken.

The Play Develops Essay

Eddie, Beatrice and Catherine, living a cocooned life in Red Hook, Brooklyn. Then came Marco and Rodolpho, Beatrice’s cousins from Italy, and their insignificant world was turned upside down, and a series of events lead to Eddie’s demise. During the first act of the play, there are three important events to take into consideration when discussing Eddie and Beatrice’s relationship. Catherine is offered a job and is delighted at the opportunity to earn money and become a working woman. However, she wants to gain Beatrice’s support before telling Eddie about this chance. When she does tell Eddie he is defiant that she will not take this job. This upsets Catherine because she needs Eddie’s approval, as she sees him as a father figure. Beatrice encourages Catherine, but Eddie is pessimistic about the whole opportunity. He makes up excuses as to why she shouldn’t accept the job; such as â€Å"I don’t like that neighbourhood over there. † In reality Eddie is keen to protect her a while longer, and he doesn’t want to let her go and gain independence. In Eddie’s eyes, no one is good enough for Catherine, and he doesn’t want her to be talked about the way Longshoreman talk about other girls. Eddie never admits to protecting Catherine, and Beatrice never actually says this, but it is implied. This is one trait of their relationship- Beatrice’s respect for Eddie in the way that although many things are implied, Beatrice never comes out and says them in case she offends Eddie. This is obvious in the first act of the play, but towards the end this changes. This is also one of the first times there is an implication of an unnatural relationship between Eddie and Catherine. Eddie loves her greatly, and Catherine sees him as a father figure, but Beatrice can see a different side to Eddie’s love, and implies that he loves her in the wrong way. This is only implied all the way through the play, until right at the end. Before the cousins arrive there is an air of expectancy and anticipation. Nai ve Catherine asks what happens if someone asks about the cousins, and Eddie is quick to tell her ‘If you said you knew it, if you didn’t say it you didn’t know it. † There is a code of conduct to be obeyed, and that code is that you never talk about the immigrants or admit knowledge of them- you simply feign ignorance. No one would dare tell the Immigration Bureau for fear of being ostracized from the society. The irony of this code of conduct can be seen later on when Eddie rings the Bureau and snitches on Marco and Rodolpho. When the cousins finally arrive, there is some chemistry between Catherine and Rodolpho, and the audience can see something may develop between them. Eddie senses this, and when talking to the cousins, focuses his attention on Marco. Catherine and Beatrice appreciate Rodolpho’s good humour and enthusiasm, and this makes Eddie uncomfortable. Eddie attempts to prevent Rodolpho from forming a relationship with Catherine. Beatrice feels he should not be interfering, but only implies this. The cousin’s arrival is a turning point in Eddie’s life, as Catherine starts to gain independence and discover the fact she can love someone who is not Eddie.

External influences Essay

Three ways in which an increase in unemployment might affect Hacker PLC are Organisation, Payments, and Government spending. Organisation – Unemployment can have a number of effect on the internal organisation of a business. It may mean that the firm can no longer afford to recruit new members of staff because of low demand for its products. New, often young, recruits to a firm will no longer be coming through. In addition, new posts which arise may be filled through retraining of existing staff rather than recruitment. This can lead to significant changes in the age profile of an organisation’s employees. Redundancies are also a common feature of a period of high unemployment. Whilst the work of some who are made redundant will not be replaced, the responsibilities and roles of others may be added to the job description of those who remain within the firm. This can lead to increasing demands on existing employees. During periods of high unemployment, some firms reorganise their internal structure. This may mean the loss of a whole tier in the hierarchy or the changing of individual’s job description. Payments – Businesses may be faced with making redundancy payments to workers. These tend to vary between firms depending upon the average length of service of the employee. The cost of reorganisation caused by redundancies will also have to be borne by firms. Such costs may include lost productivity after a reorganisation as employees struggle to cope with new responsibilities. It may be easier for firms to recruit new employees during a period of high unemployment. This is because there is a large pool of people to choose from, with more applicants for each available post. In addition, because of the increased competition for new jobs, people may be prepared to work for less money. In this way firms can lower their labour costs. Government spending – High levels of unemployment mean that government spending on social security will be high. Also, the government will lose revenue from tax and National insurance contributions which people would have paid had they been in employment. To male up for this the government may borrow, increase taxation or reduce other items of spending. 8. Structural unemployment can offer UK businesses the opportunities of new methods of productions and competition from overseas. The business benefits from the changing of pattern of demands because this means that because the business may make use of modern technology/machinery, there will be less human intervene required. This is a benefit has the business is reducing its labour costs and total costs. This is a benefit because although this means that redundancy will be made and high labour turn over will be made, at least the business will be able to keep the money spent on labour and enjoy greater profits. Secondly, the business may be gain an opportunity from this because an encouragement can be made to foreign producers to establish their businesses in UK. This will benefit the firm because it means the firm can negotiate with the government to receive grants and support with the establishment of the business, as the firm can provide employment to people and possibly to those people as well with skills not needed by domestic businesses. 15. The likely implications for the government trying to reduce the unemployment are that in Cyclical employment the business may suffer from the falling sales. In the short term, the businesses may be able to add any surplus production to stocks. Alternatively, businesses may seek new market, perhaps overseas. However, not all businesses may suffer from the changes in unemployment, whilst suppliers of luxury products could suffer substantial reduction in sales. Secondly, in structural unemployment the effects on the businesses can be severe because it’s often highly localised and very persistent. If there is need to a reduce output, then rationalisation and redundancy might follow and factories and offices may be closed. Research and development plans may be abandoned or postponed as firms seek to reduce their costs to match their reduced revenues. The predicted fall in the level of demand may encourage the firms to diversify.

Miranda Rights Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Miranda Rights - Research Paper Example Arguments against Miranda Rights have to contend with counter-arguments that not having this protective mechanism in place will open citizens to potential rights abuses, and that not having this mechanism will remove a key set of information that individuals need when dealing with police. Those in favor of Miranda Rights must deal with the thought that they do not really change or better society in any substantive way. A comparison of these arguments and their relative worth is necessary to establish how much progress Miranda Rights have made since their inception in protecting individuals from harm. Miranda Rights, as they exist now, were conceived in 1966 as a result of the United States Supreme Court case Miranda vs. Arizona, in which Ernesto Arturo Miranda signed a confession without being properly informed of his various Constitutional rights related to due process. Miranda challenged the conviction based on this false confession and the circumstantial evidence that connected hi m to the crime, which led to Chief Justice Earl Warren of the Supreme Court to draft the first version of the Miranda warning. From this court case, suspects were now entitled to be informed of their rights to not self-incriminate and to seek counsel, even if he cannot afford one. The Court's opinion also indicated that if an individual chose to exercise his Miranda Right to remain silent, the interrogation must cease; likewise, if an individual chose to exercise his Miranda Right to counsel, the interrogation must cease until counsel can be found with whom he can confer with during interrogation. As with any verbal warning, there is a vague set of standards related to waiving or acknowledging understanding of the warning. With the Miranda Warning, a suspect must be asked if he understands these rights given under the Miranda Warning—either after each sentence of the Warning or after the entire Warning has been given. A person's silence in response to the Warning is interpret able, according to a recent decision by the Supreme Court, as an understanding of what the Warning says (Bravin, 2010). However, the issue is complicated when the Miranda Warning is issued to people who do not speak English or speak it poorly. In this case, the Miranda Warning will not help suspects who cannot understand its content. The standards for delivering the Warning to those suspects, then, become difficult to define. However, delivering the same Warning to all suspects taken in under arrest gives a sense of standardization and equality for everyone under the ideal of procedural justice, even if true justice is not achieved in every case. This argument against the Miranda Warning is one that its supporters must contend with as English becomes less of a dominant language among a growing American demographic. Miranda Rights are also vague in terms of their standards for exceptions. What comes to mind first of all is the public safety exception, derived most clearly from the Su preme Court case New York v. Quarles. In that case, officers questioned a suspect on the location of a firearm in a public setting before informing him of his Miranda Rights. The Court ruled that when the

Right is left and left is right Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Right is left and left is right - Research Paper Example Schools, in particular private schools, have practiced uniforms or conformation to dress codes for their students for many years to help maintain order. In the wake of increasing school-based violence and gang activity in recent years, a rethinking on the implementation of school uniform policies and more stringent dress codes has been found necessary by public schools as well. However, until now no state legislation mandates the use of student uniforms or specific dress codes. Many large public school systems have schools with either voluntary or mandatory uniform policies, mostly in elementary and middle schools (ECS, Education Commission of the States, 2009). According to Morris and Wells (2000), the argument of school officials, parents and researchers favoring the use of school uniforms is that â€Å"they enhance the ability of the school to achieve its basic academic purpose, diminish the differences among socio-economic levels, promote self-confidence and school spirit, and improve student behavior.† The Manual on School Uniforms published by the U.S. Department of Education (1996) identified several potential benefits for school uniforms including decreasing violence and theft, preventing gang members from wearing gang clothing at school, instilling discipline among students, helping resist peer pressure, helping students concentrate on academics, and aiding school officials recognize intruders. In Long Beach, California, education officials believe the pilot school uniform program implemented in 11 schools serving 8,000 students caused school-related crime to decline by 76 percent while significantly increasing attendance. H owever, the correlation between uniforms and positive results is yet to be proved (Morris and Wells, 2000). Parents and students have consistently opposed uniforms on several counts such as: they infringe upon the First Amendment rights of students; they

Billabong Case Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Billabong Case - Assignment Example Secondly, when Billabong obtained payment from the merchants, thus it will be translated back into Australian Dollar for application in Australia. As Australian dollar depreciates, the receiving in United State can be interpreted into more Australian dollar than before, bringing rise in trade revenues. The impact of 35.6% depreciation in value of Australian dollar in the subsequent half 2008 was echoed in the interim account ended Dec 2009, with trade revenues in the United States improved by 33.9% (to $385 million). One can envisage the future exchange price by using forward trade rate. In times of fiscal crisis, the forward business rate is not a fine predictor since the market is incompetent. In an inadequate market, Fundamental advance can be employed for forecasting, footed on economic theories and study of variables. Though it is not efficient in forecasting the short-term variations in trade rates, also it is ample as there would constantly be fluctuations that would not be anticipated. Another advance could be using technological analysis to establish the movement of cash by analyzing historical information. This approach is supposed to be a ball that is crystal since there is no hypothetical rationale. The financial catastrophe has caused unanticipated variations in the value AUD. Press prediction for the trade rates predictions of two thousand and nine in the late two thousand and eight were towards continual reduction. It was 67.83 United States Dollars on Christmas Eve two thousand a nd eight. What happens in the foreign exchange market can have a fundamental impact on the sales, profits, and strategy of an enterprise. Accordingly, it is essential that Billabong managers could have understood the foreign exchange market, and what the result of variation in currency trade rates might be for Billabong. 4. The Australian dollar continued to rise by another 20 percent against the U.S dollar in 2010 and 2011. How would this have affected

Relationship between irritable bowel syndrome and stress Research Paper

Relationship between irritable bowel syndrome and stress - Research Paper Example It is known that the specific alterations in the body caused from stress directly impact the brain and the nervous system, which links to the gastrointestinal system and causes complexities with the digestive system. The examination of whether stress causes IBS and to which extent can then lead to more holistic methods of helping individuals that are suffering from IBS. Irritable Bowel Syndrome, also known as IBS, is one of the most common non – infectious gastrointestinal disorders (Pelissier, Danzter, Canini, 2010, 653). The problems associated with this create cramping, abdominal pain, bloating, constipation and diarrhea, all which can create abnormalities in the system (Mayer et al, 2001, p 280). The complexities of IBS are not only associated with the physical discomfort and abnormalities that are in the system. There are also difficulties that are related to the stress levels which individuals carry, all which are directly associated with IBS. It is known that different types of stress affect the triggering effects and the way in which IBS functions. Stress factors include physiological, psychological and physical stressors that occur. These are also associated with emotional motor systems, including automatic, neuroendocrine, attentional and pain modulatory responses (Mayer et al, 2001, p 280). Examining the ways in which IBS links to stress as well as how it is affected with different circuits can then create a deeper understanding of how to treat the main causes associated with IBS and stress. The conditions that are associated with IBS create various levels of reactions among those suffering from the disorder. Understanding how these conditions affect the human body as well as what is associated with the main complexities can provide insight into how this changes the rest of the system. The system and the gastrointestinal area of the body are connected to various systems in the body, which triggers IBS. The conditions and

Isolation and Investigation of Catalase Lab Report

Isolation and Investigation of Catalase - Lab Report Example The enzymes are also applicable in various fields like medical applications and industrial applications. This report seeks to examine the effects of pH, temperature on the action of catalase enzyme. The change in pH is the degree in which an environment changes either from acidity to alkalinity or from alkalinity to acidity. When the environment becomes so acidic, it may completely inhibit enzymes from facilitating the reactions. The change in pH has an impact on the repulsive forced and the attractive forces and may completely change the shape and the size of the active sites such that the substrate molecules may fail to fit (Siow, 2009). This inhibits the chemical changes from taking place. The basic groups such as the nitrogen are protonated in an acidic condition and they are deprotonated in an environment that is basic and makes alterations in the electrical attractions that exists between the polar components. Catalase enzyme has an optimum pH value that it operates, beyond which it is inhibited. (Enger, Ross & Bailey, 2012).   When catalase is added to the hydrogen peroxide, a reaction occurs producing oxygen gas. The experiment seeks to investigate the temperature effect on the enzymatic actions by measuring the level of oxygen produced within a given period of time (Vetiska, 2004).   It is noted that enzymes work best between pH values ranging from 7 to 10 as illustrated in the table above. The rate of reaction increases as the pH increases from 5 to 7, which is a neutral point. As the pH continues to increase from 10 to 12, the rate of reaction starts to decrease and the volume of foam produced decreases. It was seen that as the ph changes from the optimum to alkaline range, the catalase enzymes lose the hydrogen ions (Crofts, 2013).  Independent variable is the temperature of the environment, dependable variables is the catalase enzyme, and Constant variables are the time used and the amount of catalase used. The

Compare and contrast the ideologies and aims of VILLA and CARRANZA and Essay

Compare and contrast the ideologies and aims of VILLA and CARRANZA and their impact on the Mexican Revolution ( 1910-17) - Essay Example d his success in the revolution was mainly due to his ability to portray himself as a wise, stern patriarch who was the nations best hope for peace.† (Minster About.com Guide) Villa often opposes dictators during his time and revolted against the current regime twice. He strongly believed in his ways and that Mexicans should be free from oppression of people in power and injustice. Carranza joined the revolution due to high ambitions; he collaborated with Francisco Madero who was the brains of the revolution in 1910. As quoted by Christopher online, â€Å"Carranza was not a true believer in reform and he felt that a firmer hand (preferably his) was needed to rule Mexico.† (Minster About.com Guide) Carranza was more into the politics of the matter. One of his major reasons for joining the revolution was his plans of attaining power for himself. After Madero got assassinated by Huerta, another uprising came; this time led by Carranza himself. He was supported by Villa and Obregon on this one. Villa led his army to winning countless battles with his bravery. With his great charisma he was able to gather an army of 3000 in just a month time. He led them the last time against American Troops, after attacks on Columbus and New Mexico, before he was awarded pardon in 1920. Carranza, on the latter part of the second uprising, was sided by the United States. Villa went to the mountains during this time and was considered a fugitive of the New Mexican government. Little was changed during Carranza’s reign. Jennifer Rosenberg added in her online article that; â€Å"Villa retired from revolutionary life in 1920 but had only a short retirement for he was gunned down in his car on July 20, 1923.†(Rosenberg About.com Guide) After Obregon drove him off of power in Mexico, Carranza was gunned by Rodolfo Herrera in his sleep together with his top supporters in 1920. As Christopher Minster quoted it, â€Å"Herrera was put on trial by Obregon, but it was clear that no one missed

Journal - wk2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Journal - wk2 - Essay Example Visual, kinaesthetic, and auditory learning styles provides opportunity for the students in that it helps them to attach with, absorb, and recall information being handed over. While it is rather tricky and confusing to vary teaching approaches to serve each student’s learning preference, changing and shifting the method in which teaching is being carried out bring about positive upshots in that it reduce the possibility for the students to get a bit lost, unfocused, and unfastened with the material or information. Considering the fact that each student could only retain information that they individually conceived and developed, it is therefore effective to draw on the pre-existing knowledge of the student. This will improve the student’s understanding over the same information. Although is very possible that each student could have no prior knowledge about a particular information, the introduction of new concepts could be easily inculcated to their thoughts with the help of the different learning

Political Science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 7

Political Science - Essay Example Illegal immigrants areundocumented immigrantsor aliens in the United States who enter the borders of United States without government permission or those who stay beyond the termination date of a visa. There are different causes of illegal migration ranging from economic incentives of a better life, chain immigration to join relatives, American government inefficiency, and globalization to trade agreements. Illegal migration however has such benefits as availability of cheap labor and payment of taxes by the immigrants. Racial profiling refers to government activity directed at a suspect or group of suspects because of their race, whether intentional or because of the disproportionate numbers of contacts based upon other pre-textual reasons. This is common in America especially when it comes to people from the Middle East but it should be in tandem with the Fourth Amendment. Rawls would have condemned Middle East profiling and the outlawing of illegal migration based on his write-ups.In his ‘A Theory of Justice’ (1971) he made contributions to liberal political philosophy namely: justice as fairness; reflective equilibrium; overlapping consensus; public reason; veil of ignorance; and original position. Rawlsianism provides for the most reasonable principles of justice as those which everyone would accept and agree to from a fair position. Justice as fairness comprises two main principles of Liberty and Equality with the second divided into Fair Equality of Opportunities and the Difference Principle in the order of priority. The Liberty Principle provides for entitlement of everyone to basic liberties while the Equality Principle establishes distributive justice. Fair Equality of Opportunity provides for access to positions to everyone regardless of their social background, ethnicity or sex. The Difference Principle regulates inequalities by permitting them to the advantage of the worst-off (Cohen and Fermon

Environmental Archaeology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Environmental Archaeology - Essay Example There are two broad categories of dating used in assessing the age of archaeological remains these two broad categories are namely absolute methods, and relative methods. The absolute dating methods depend on using several physical properties of a sample or object to compute its age. Relative dating methods inform only on the relative difference in age between two samples (Branch, 2005). On the contrary, absolute dating methods give an actual date in terms of years. Several absolute dating methods make use of radioactive decay. This is whereby a radioactive structure of an element is transformed into a new non-radioactive product or radioactive isotope at a standard rate (Wilkinson and Stevens, 2003). Others like cation-ratio dating and amino acid racimization are founded on chemical transforms in the inorganic or organic composition of a model. In contemporary years, a number of these techniques have experienced continual improvement as scientists endeavor to develop the perfect dat ing methods possible (O'Connor and Evans, 2008). Examples of absolute methods include: a) Dendrochronology. b) Radiocarbon dating. c) Optical dating or optically motivated luminescence. d) Thermoluminescence dating. e) Potassium-argon dating. f) Archaeomagnetic dating. g) Numismatics. h) Magnetic Properties of Lead. i) Obsidian hydration dating j) Amino acid dating. k) Rehydroxylation dating Relative Techniques Indirect or relative methods tend to utilize associations assembled from archaeological bodies of data. An illustration is seriation. Fundamentally, relative dating depends on attaching into absolute dating with regard to the present. One case in point of this is dendrochronology which employs a method of attaching floating chronologies of tree rings collectively through cross referencing a work body (Albarella, 2001). In practice a number of diverse dating techniques ought to be applied in various circumstances, consequently dating evidence for a large amount of an archaeolo gical sequence documented in the course of an excavation necessitates matching data from identified absolute or a number of related steps, with a vigilant study of stratigraphic interactions. What Is Paleoethnobotany and What Types of Evidence (Data Sources) Does This Research Specialization Use to Examine These Relationships? What are some of the Strengths and Limitations of This Specialization? Paleoethnobotany, also referred to as archaeobotany, is the study of human-plant correlations. Paleoethnobotany is a vital constituent of a wide-ranging study of every archaeological site, as well as lithic,  ceramic or faunal analysis. Classification,  analysis, as well as interpretation  of the plants obtained from an archaeological site  may present insight into  historical subsistence, environment, and economy (Branch, 2005). There are several types of data sources that are employed in this research specialization in order to examine these relationships. Types of Data Sources The central bodies of conjecture for the life sciences encompass evolution and genetics in a broad sense. Taxonomy which is the presumption of formal categorization and systematics is fundamental to identification and

Case study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 38

Case Study Example The budget the manager intends to submit for the financial year is $4,900,000 which exceeds the expected expense by $700,000. Submitting a budget higher than the expected cost to be incurred is a misuse of the power and authority vested in the management position. This is taking advantage of the position to mismanage public funds which is not ethical at all. Public officers are expected to conduct themselves in an ethical manner encouraging transparency in carrying out their duties. Submitting of a budget higher than the expected costs equals betrayal of the public trust in the role of the management in the city’s waste management. Furthermore, submitting a higher budget will strain the city’s finances especially with the reduction in tax collections. As a result, the city may not have enough funds to process waste in the near future. Inadequate fund in the future will mean that not all the waste is processed thus causing pollution to the environment. Therefore, submitting a higher budget will seem good in the short run to manage the department but with long term effects that may paralyze the operations of the department. Though the manager expects a cut on the budget by 10%, this does not justify the increase in the budget from $4,200,000 to $4,900,000. That is an increase of $700,000 which is way above the expected increase. Given that the total cost of the department will amount to $4200000, reducing it by 10% will amount to reduction of: The manager does not justify for the excess amount of $280,000 after the expected reduction of 10% by the city controller. Lack of accountability for this amount creates loopholes for corruption. By having submitted a higher budget, the department will rarely take back any excess amount since the manager does not want to disclose their actions. This results in misuse of public funds. Moreover, the expectation of increased cost of labor and the amount of waste is not enough reason also for the inflation of the budget

Smart Phones Beneficial Or Detrimental Research Paper

Smart Phones Beneficial Or Detrimental - Research Paper Example Smart phones are believed to be quite important to the society possessing certain outcomes in the business, education, global as well as in the national sectors. In-spite of certain fathomable advantages, smart phones also comprise certain detrimental aspects, which needs to be taken into consideration before incorporating its use in the social context. Careful use of smart phone needs to be made especially in the education sector and also by the young generation who are regarded as one of the key user segments of such devices. Data secrecy and misuse of personal information needs to be carefully observed as a key detrimental aspect, for the users of smart phone who at times might not be well attuned with the security features of the device (The George Lucas Educational Foundation, 2012). Similarly, in the business context, it is found that smart phones provide beneficial outcomes for the users by assisting them in preparing their business presentations, accessing emails and chatting with concerned authorities among others. Such imperative benefits can facilitate the user with faster accessibility and can also enable to save invaluable time of the user. However, in social context, it can be recognized that at times extensive use of smart phones can make the user engrossed to it all the times, which can further affect the social skills of the person as interaction with other peers or friends in person becomes gradually meager.   Therefore, based on these understandings the entire paper would intend to draw on different viewpoints.

The trial and death of socrates (book by Plato) Essay

The trial and death of socrates (book by Plato) - Essay Example Having lived at the end of the Golden Age, Socrates arose as a response to the structural changes occurring within the city at that time. Living a very simple life by sacrificing wealth and politics, Socrates decided to stay among the common people of Athens to challenge everyone’s intellects. In this way, he became a founder of philosophy: choosing instead to look at the nature of knowledge, instead of what can best be said to belong to our current state of knowledge. Socrates is the protagonist of the Apology and the Crito. Although he is a simple man, he is presented to the jury in Athens as a man of great intellectual power, despite his claim that he in fact knows nothing. Despite his common appearance, Socrates is interested in investigating ethical matters, particularly those related to the state and, in this case, related to why the city identifies him as a troublesome element. In the death scene of the Phaedo (115b-118a), Socrates demonstrates himself to be accepting o f his fate, which he resigns to accept in the Crito (49b10-11). In the Phaedo, Crito asks Socrates how he would like to be buried, to which he responds, â€Å"In any way that you like; only you must get hold of me, and take care that I do not walk away from you† (115c). In the face of execution, Socrates retains his old-timey kind of charm and joking demeanor. This kind of joke is also meant to represent his lack of respect for the system that has found him guilty of trumped-up charges, even though he has committed himself to follow the dictates of the court. In the time leading up to his execution, Socrates engages in this dialogue with Crito, during which Crito remarks on his admiration of Socrates’ level-headedness in defending himself against the threat of death (43a). Socrates, having no knowledge of this person, does not react unkindly to his guests and admits that because of his advanced age, he will not react too strongly to such a situation. Crito then tells S ocrates that he has come at this early hour to give him the opportunity to escape, which creates a philosophical and a practical problem for Socrates, who disagrees with the outcome of the trial and their sentence, but at the same time does not want to disregard the nature of the relationship between man and state. Crito’s appeals to Socrates are moral in nature, such that they appeal to his virtues. For instance, Crito remarks that not fleeing from an unjust death would be cowardly in the face of injustice (45d). Socrates has, according to Crito, an obligation to his children that he would not respect if he voluntarily remains in his cell and receives an execution. Socrates demonstrates the nature of his character by not responding to the practical problem that Crito has posed. By offering him a way out, Crito has made remaining in his cell a voluntary act on the eve of execution. In response, Socrates expresses his disrespect for people who do not act rationally and that be cause he has virtues, such as the ability to recognize justice, he is electing to stay in his cell (47c). He is not thinking about the goods that typical Athenian men, like those who brought him to trial, think about: money, reputation, and political stance. These external goods are the values of those men who do

A Profile of the Irish Republican Army Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

A Profile of the Irish Republican Army - Essay Example Irish Volunteers used to be a militant nationalist group, which came into being in 1913. IRA claimed to represent the nationalist, Catholic community in Northern Ireland. The group is linked with the political party Sinn Fein. Sinn Fein was formed in 1905 at Ireland. It is the oldest political party, whose name originates from the Irish Gaelic phrase for â€Å"We Ourselves.† Since its foundation, the party has strived for the right of Irish nationals aiming at attaining national self determination (Derkins 2002, p. 20). The Provisional Irish Republican Army was instituted in 1969 as the covert armed division of Sinn Fein. Sinn Fein was a lawful political movement committed to confiscating British army from Northern Ireland and uniting Ireland. The group used violence as the tool of removing British authorities from Ireland. The differences arose within IRA regarding the widespread use of violence. As a result of the Sinn Fein conference in Dublin, in 1969, the IRA was split into two, Provisional and Official divisions (Derkins 2002, p. 22). Although both wings were dedicated to a unified socialist republic of Irish, the Official favored parliamentary strategies and shunned violence after 1972. On the other hand, Provisionals supposed that violence, especially terrorism, was a crucial component of the struggle to remove United Kingdom from Ireland. The group has received assistance from a range of organizations and states. The group has received substantial training and weapons from Libya and Palestine Liberation Organization. As a result of the similarities of IRA operations, there is the probability of links between IRA and Basque militant organization, ETA, and guerrillas FARC in Colombia (Shanahan 2009, p.12). Aims and Ideology As Derkins (2002, p. 32) observes, the main aims of the group were to establish an Irish republic, ending the British rule in Northern Ireland and the reunion of Ireland. This would then lead to establish a democratic socialist republic. The group claimed to be the Catholic republicans fightin g for the rights of the Catholics. The IRA purpose was to employ military to make British ruling in Ireland unsuccessful. This would then assist in attaining the broader goal of an independent republic, which Sinn Fein was pursuing at the political level. Since its formation, the group has functioned independently of political power. However, its membership overlaps with that of Sinn Fein. During the Anglo-Irish War, from 1919 to 1921, the IRA, under the direction of Michael Collins, used guerilla tactics, comprising raids, sabotage and ambushes, to force negotiations with the British government. The war led to an agreement that established two new political units; the Irish Free State and the Northern Ireland. The Irish Free State consisted of 26 counties and was given dominion status inside the British Empire. Northern Ireland, also known as a province of Ulster, comprised of 6 counties, and it remained a fraction of the U.K. Significant elements within IRA rejected this partition and started a civil war, eventually triumphed by the pro-treaty Irish army (Tugwell 1981, p. 13). In the 1970s, the relationship between Britain and Free State remained chilly. The old IRA sustained a low degree of campaign of violence intended at reuniting Ireland. However, in 1960s, its activities had diminished significantly. The developments in Northern Ireland, in the late 1960s, accelerated the diminishing influence of IRA. Civil rights activists engaged in civil defiance in reaction to discrimination against Catholics in Northern Ireland. The activists claimed discrimination in housing, employment, and voting by the dominant Protestant administration and population (Shanahan 2009,

Last Day of the Last Furlough Essay Example for Free

Last Day of the Last Furlough Essay Lessons learned from Isolation in A Complicated Kindness and The Catcher in the Rye Love, sex and drugs; the few things that affect teenagers as they transition to adults. When becoming an adult there is a realization that one can no longer depend on their parents and there are overwhelming responsibilities such as going to school and getting the job. Teenagers are notorious for believing that it is themselves versus the world. The stress of becoming an adult is overpowering, and people cope differently with the change. Some teenagers rebel against their family and friends. This causes them to grow distant from the people they are close with. As a result some teenagers gradually isolate themselves, they confine in their isolation as it is their comfort zone. People can also isolate themselves because they cannot relate to others; this causes them to be excluded. In the novel A Complicated Kindness, the main character Nomi Nickel feels isolated as she does not agree with her community’s rules. To cope with her isolation she decides to rebel against her humble upbringings. Similarly, the character Holden Caulfield from The Catcher in the Rye faces isolation, to cope he begins to fail most of his classes. Although Nomi Nickel from Miriam Toews’ A Complicated Kindness, and Holden Caulfield from J.D Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye rebel to compensate for their isolation , both ultimately realize valuable lessons. Nomi Nickel realizes that she is accepts her Mennonite community, whereas Holden Caulfield realizes that people have to change in order to develop character. The characters Nomi Nickel and Holden Caulfield lose loved ones; in order to cope with their grief they seclude themselves from their surroundings. Nomi is abandoned by her sister Tash Nickel and her mother Trudie Nickel. Trudie and Tash were excommunicated from the town, it causes their departure from East Village. Trudie and Tash were considered defiant to the conservative Mennonite community. The feeling of exclusion caused emotional distress on Trudie and Tash, they did not have any option but to leave. Margaret Boe Birns argues â€Å"By excluding those who come into conflict with the community, shunning can destroy the relationship between neighbours and, as in the case of the Nickel family, cruelly divide family members.† This is true in Nomi’s case because the dividing has separated her family, the family members are in a predicament on whether to choose each other or their religion. The church’s shunning is highly responsible for separating her family as some of her family members were no longer welcomed in the community. Since Nomi lost her mother and sister she is isolated. She furthers this isolation by not having a relationship with her father, Ray Nickel. Nomi has waited three years for her family to rejoin, â€Å"If we could get out of this town things might be better but we aren’t we are waiting for Trudie and Tash to come back† (Toews 4). Nomi is disheartened that her family is broken up, but she remains in the town in case her mother and sister come back. Although things may be better elsewhere Nomi and Ray stay in the town in hopes that their family will no longer divided. Ultimately, until a possible reunion Nomi goes against her community’s rules and teachings as it is the driving force of her family splitting. She isolates herself from the community as she feels loyal to her mother and sister when doing so. Similarly, Holden suffers the loss of his brother Allie who died of cancer this causes Holden to alienate himself. Holden is isolated because the only person he can relate to is his brother who is dead. Holden’s last remark â€Å"Don’t ever tell anybody anything. If you do, you start missing everybody† (Salinger 214), shows that Holden does not want the chance of losing a loved one again. As Holden transitions to an adult he feels that he is abandoning his brother, because Allie died young. Holden acts in an immature way by trying to stay a child, he isolates himself from his age group because he believes that he is better than his peers. Moreover, Holden is completely alone as he is sent to boarding school on his own. Lisa Privitera writes about Holden â€Å"he tells the world that he made connections and feels the intensity of the emotions these connections bring up for him and that blissful ignorance might have been the better choice†. It is apparent that Holden does not want to get hurt by forming new friendships. Although he may not get hurt the small chance of him being mistreated completely turns him off from forming new relationships. Allie’s death has lead Holden to believe that Holden will lose anyone that was once close to him. Holden is successful in isolating himself because he cannot open himself to others. In both novels the situations are parallel as the characters lose loved ones. In both novels the main characters are resentful towards the community in which they live in. This compels them to go against the norms and to further their isolation. Nomi lives in a strict Mennonite community that is secluded from the rest of the world, and the community disapproves of secular ways. The community has ridiculous rules which are difficult to comply with when living in a western society. This makes it difficult for Nomi to obey the rules, as a result she does not follow the town’s teachings. When Mr. Quiring asked Nomi what she was doing with her life she responded, â€Å"I ended up saying stupid stuff like I just want to be myself, I just want to do things without wondering if there a sin or not. I want to be free† (Toews 48). It is evident that Nomi wants to enjoy herself. Her Mennonite religion has prevented Nomi from being free, as everyone is in a constant struggle to determine if their actions are religiously correct. Nomi, ultimately goes against her community and engages in outrageous behaviours such as doing drugs, partying and having sex with her boyfriend. Margaret Boe Birns states about Nomi, â€Å"She struggles against all things Mennonite. She makes a major departure from the ways of her community when she acquires birth control pills in preparation for her first sexual experience with her boyfriend Travis†. When Nomi engages in sex, she goes against the Mennonite teachings this is scandalous as her uncle â€Å"The Mouth† is the leader of the church. Nomi goes to the extent of burning a sign put up by The Mouth. This ultimately causes Nomi’s excommunication. Nomi rebels against her towns rules and isolates herself, to prove that she is better than what her town have people made to be. Moreover, Holden faces similar challenges to Nomi, as he is resentful towards his school’s community and feels that everyone is phony as he does not fit anywhere. This drives Holden to go to New York before he is to return home from his private school. Like Nomi, Holden partakes in risquà © behaviour. As Holden attempts to relate to someone he ends up associating with the wrong crowd. In one instance Holden calls for a prostitute to come to his room. Instead of engaging in sex, Holden opts for a conversation it is obvious that Holden is in need of a companion. He is unable to create successful relationships because he believes he cannot relate to anyone. Lingdi Chen writes, â€Å"Alienation is both the source of Holden’s strength and the source of his problem†¦his loneliness propels him into his date with Sally Hayes, but his need for isolation causes him to insult her and drive her away.† Holden does not realize that because he isolates himself from his surroundings it gets him into trouble, he begins to drink underage as an attempt to meet new people. Holden is bitter because he cannot relate to anyone and to compensate he acts morally wrong. When Holden is walking alone at night he thinks to himself, â€Å"New York`s terrible when somebody laughs on the street very late at night. You can hear it for miles. It makes you feel so lonesome and depressed. I kept wishing I could go home and shoot the bull with for a while with old people† (Salinger 113). This quote shows in its entirety how lonely Holden is, he lies to himself that New York is quite, as it is known as the city that never sleeps. He does this to make himself feel better that he has no one. In both books the characters end up isolating themselves as they do not agree with the circumstances they are in. Although the Nomi and Holden are at a constant struggle with their isolation, it has made them realize valuable lessons about themselves. Nomi comes to realization that she accepts her Mennonite community. When The Mouth informs Ray that his daughter has been excommunicated he says â€Å"It has been determined, said the mouth. What has? Asked my dad. Nomi’s excommunication, said the mouth†¦ Based on what criteria†¦ lack of attendance†¦ setting fires† (Toews 235). Ray is obviously disheartened that Nomi got excommunicated, but surprisingly Nomi does not leave East Village. Although she has been longing to move out, once she gets the opportunity she does not. Her constant need to be isolated from her town makes her appreciative of her town, but when she is given the opportunity to leave she realizes that she accepts her roots. After Nomi has sex with her boyfriend Travis he abandons her, Nomi’s father Ray also leaves her as he cannot bear to ignore his daughter who is excommunicated. Even though Nomi losses people who are remotely valuable in her life, she decides to stay in East Village. Since, Nomi is isolated she is able to look at the children, notice the beauty in the simple things and she has a reason to stay. Margaret Boe Birns writes â€Å"†¦Nomi hopes her family will one day reunite on earth. There is also a tactic hope that somehow her Mennonite community will find a way to look on the Nickel family with sympathy and understanding†. It is clearly apparent that because Nomi was isolated she is able to be more hopeful of her surroundings. She is no longer resentful of her community, as she believes that one day the Mennonites will approve of her family. This hope provides comfort to Nomi, as she remains alone in the East Village. Like Nomi, Holden learns an important lesson. Holden discovers that maturing is part of life, and he is unable to stop people from growing up. Lingdi Chen argues â€Å"Holden tells the symbolic meaning of the museum’s displays: they appeal to him because they are frozen and unchanging. He also mentions that he is troubled by the fact that he has changed every time when he returns to them†. Holden believes that humans should also mimic the museum displays, and to be true to oneself, one must never change. Holden’s way of thinking enables himself from making friends, as he does not want a relationship with someone who changes. Holden fails to realize that people are always changing as they need to mature and develop character. He would rather save children and prevent them from entering the adult world, so they can maintain their innocence. It is until Holden is with his sister Phoebe, that he makes a realization about human nature. Holden thinks to himself after seeing Phoebe on a carousel trying to catch a ring, â€Å"The things with kids is, if they want to grab the gold ring you have to let them do it and not say anything† (Salinger 221). When Holden allows Phoebe to grab the ring he realizes that people have to learn lessons for themselves, and he cannot protect people from making mistakes, he realizes that these lessons make people grow. Even though there is a possibility that Phoebe may fall catching the ring it allows her to learn and make better judgements. Holden firmly believed that people are phony for changing themselves, but that is because he did not consider that people have to mature. Since Holden was isolated and confined in his sister for comfort, he realized that he cannot prevent people from growing up and people need new journeys. Both, Nomi and Holden learned and grew for the better from their isolation. Nomi Nickel has grown appreciative of her Mennonite community, and Holden has realized that to grow people have to change and make mistakes. They both make these realizations as a result of their isolation. Although, people may need their personal space to think, completely isolating oneself may not be a clever idea. Isolation can cause for problems such as depression, it is better to be open minded to others and the surroundings as new valuable lessons can be learned. Works Cited Birns, Margaret Boe. A Complicated Kindness. Advanced Placement Source. EBSCO, 2007. Web. 31 May 2013. Lingdi Chen. An Analysis of the Adolescent Problems in The Catcher in the Rye. Asian Social Science. N.p., May 2009. Web. 31 May 2013. Privitera, Lisa. Holdens Irony in Salingers THE CATCHER IN THE RYE. Academic Search Alumni Edition. EBSCO, 2008. Web. 31 May 2013. Salinger, J. D. The Catcher in the Rye. Boston: Little, Brown, 1951. Print. Toews, Miriam. A Complicated Kindness: A Novel. New York: Counterpoint, 2004. Print.

Nowadays the effect of modern society have clearly shown on human society Essay Example for Free

Nowadays the effect of modern society have clearly shown on human society Essay Nowadays the effect of modern society have clearly shown on human society after 1950’s; however, there still have people live in minority types of family role in the united states and others Asian, Middle East, and Africa are known that man as breadwinner and woman as homemaker. There are few categories that play primary factors including culture and religion, and they become a barrier for people want to live in modern society. Although the changing gender roles of modern society have been observed and been perceived through times, the acceptance of its transformation still causes negative effects to society and family. In modern society, the idea of changing gender roles seem to be difficult not only woman or man do not have the skills for other one’s tasks but it also brings potentially risk to our society. In 1950s, the gender roles have been defined that man as breadwinner and woman as homemaker. As the society’s evolved, a woman becomes more active, ambitious and independent and a man becomes more emotional and involved in house tasks. According to Aaron H. Devor in his article, â€Å"Becoming members of Society: Learning the Social Meaning of Gender,† â€Å"†¦society demands different gender performance from us and reward, tolerates, or punishes us differently for conformity to, or digression from social norm† (527). Thus, when the gender roles are defined in terms of social interaction, then social norms seem to play a key role with it. The social norms tell us how the male and female should behave, expecting people to have their own personal characteristic an d act in a way appropriate to their gender. Even when the changing gender roles affect society, it still needs to consider and follow particularistic obligation of each gender roles. According to Bureau of Labor Statistics, woman make up 47 percents of the work place between the ages of 25 and 54 worked outside home in 1995. Therefore, woman spends less time with their children or sends them to babysitter. When the society evolves and the value of the society around us has evaluated as more generalized norms of society, it will affect to the next generation. According to Devor in his article, â€Å"Becoming members of Society: Learning the Social Meaning of Gender,† â€Å"†¦.children initially acquire the value of the society around them almost indiscriminately. To the degree that children absorb the generalized standard of society into their personal concept of that is the generalized other† (530). Therefore, the changes of each parent directly affect to their children and its transformation causes the original characteristic of children to disappear or unnoticeable. Most children consider their parent as role model to follow and learn. Thus, the society and family both play a primary affect to the next generation through changing gender roles. As the previous idea, the family will affect to their children’s gender role; however, the reason unnecessarily applies to all aspects. When the families loosen attention on their children, the lacks of familial concern causes more damaged or perverted and leads the children to the wrong path in future. Each of individual family members which play a central help to their children need to consider what they do or how they behave toward their children. According to â€Å"Becoming members of Society: Learning the Social Meaning of Gender,† the family cannot pressure their children to choose the gender, when the time is right, their children will choose the appropriate gender (Devor 534). I deprecate the way of Devor’s thought, there are statistical datas show that the gender roles of children or adults have been modified by their parent and they are more likely becoming their own gender role. It is only right when the parent helps their children to choose the right path. Because of development of modern society, it appears many people not become what they are such as gays and lesbian, and it is because the lack of concern from their family. In conclusion, modern society has tremendous effects toward the development of our society; however, it also brings the potential risk, and affect to each family generation, and the lack of concerning to children in family during their mature. If we can mix the old and modern family types together, it will give us a perfect family formation in reality. The family cannot live either old type or modern type because it rules out the family existence or cannot have rigid family bond.

As Predictors of Implicit Leadership Theories

As Predictors of Implicit Leadership Theories This study seeks to investigate how employed individuals form Implicit Leadership Theories (ILTs), or personal assumptions about the characteristics of a business leader. The existing literature consistently explains that employed individuals, through socialization and past experiences with leaders, develop ILTs. However, such studies have neglected to examine directly how ones past leaders have affected the formation process, therefore leading to a hypothesis examining this formation process. As a competing hypothesis, subordinates personalities will also be assessed on the extent to which subordinates form ILTs congruent with their own personality and how having a leadership self-image affects this relationship. Lastly, it is also predicted that subordinates share a common element when assessing ILTs, such that they will rate participative leadership behaviors higher than any other leadership behaviors. Personality and Past Experiences As Predictors of Implicit Leadership Theories Introduction Employees perceptions, prior expectations, and cognitive prototypes regarding the leadership process have dominated part of the leadership literature (Foti Lord, 1987; Kenney, Schwartz-Kenney, Blascovich, 1996; Larson, 1982; Lord Maher, 1993). Based on such literature, it has been determined that working individuals, through socialization and past experiences with leaders, develop Implicit Leadership Theories (ILTs), or personal assumptions about the traits and abilities that characterize an ideal business leader (Epitropaki Martin, 2004 PAGE NUMBER). ILTs stem from cognitive structures, or schemas, that specify traits and behaviors that followers believe an ideal leader should exhibit. They are stored in the memory, and when followers interact with a person in a leadership position, such schemas become stimulated (Kenney et al., 1996). These leadership schemas provide organizational members with a cognitive basis for understanding and responding to supervisor behavior, and they are essential elements of organizational sense-making (Poole, Gioia, Gray, 1989; Weick, 1995). The potential role of ILTs within organizational settings has been highlighted in the literature (Bass Avolio, 1989; Epitropaki Martin, 2004; Lord Maher, 1993; Offermann, Kennedy, Wirtz, 1994). Implicit leadership theories have been represented as a recognition-based approach to leadership (Lord, 1985). Based on this approach, employees compare their implicit leadership theories with their leaders traits and behaviors (Calder, 1977). This matching process is expected to form the impressions employees hold for their leaders. Each individual develops a unique schema (which is sometimes referred to as a prototype) on what traits and behaviors constitute an ideal leader, specifically in the business world. A prototype is an abstract conception of the most representative member or most widely shared features of a given cognitive category (Phillips, 1984, p. 126). These leadership prototypes are said to be formed through exposure to social events, interpersonal interactions, and prior experiences with leaders (Epitropaki Martin, 2004). Therefore, the general definition of ILTs has led to the belief that past experiences predict the formation of such theories. Such prototypes are formed by role schemas (or normative expectations) that allow followers to understand and interpret leaders traits and behaviors (Calder, 1977). As such, it is proposed that leadership is a common label applied to the traits and behaviors congruent with the observers ILTs. When a person exhibits potential leadership characteristics (as defined by the ILT), subordinates assess the potential leader for distinctiveness (as in distinct leadership attributes and behaviors) regarding that behavior (Calder, 1977). If the behavior is distinguishable from the behaviors of other group members, then leadership may be attributed to the person. Similarly, it has been suggested that the perception of leadership involves the activation of a leader category (Phillips Lord, 1981). As such, a persons attributes and/or behaviors are compared to prototypical leader characteristics, activating the leader category if there is a match between attributes and the prototypical attributes and behaviors. In this regard, Lord and his associates (e.g., Lord, 1985; Lord Maher, 1993; Phillips Lord, 1981) have contributed to the ILT field. On the basis of Roschs (1978) theory of cognitive categorization, such literature suggested a categorization theory to leadership and argued that leadership perceptions form a number of hierarchically organized schemas or cognitive categories, each of which is represented by a set of prototypes. Additionally, once a person is categorized as a leader, the activated leader prototype causes followers to selectively attend to, encode, and retrieve schema-consistent information and to provide consistent information where such information does not exist (Phillips Lord, 1981 cited in Kenney, Blascovich, Shaver, p.411). Moreover, Lord and others (Lord et al., 1984; Phillips Lord, 1982) have found that people use categories to differentiate between leaders and non-leaders and between effective and ineffective leaders, which seems essential to the formation of ILTs. Other cognitive categorization theories (e.g., Barsalou, 1985; Smith Medin, 1981) however, argue that classification occurs as observers compare stimuli with ideals or specific examples stored in memory. An ideal includes characteristics that category members should exhibit if they are to serve as a representative to the category (Barsalou, 1985). As such, a category members prototypicality increases with its similarity to the categorys ideal. Therefore, in some cases, categories may be organized around ideal prototypes rather than typical prototypes. For example, a follower might judge a leader based on an ideal notion (ILT) when evaluating whether a leader is worthy of influence (Barsalou, 1985). Similarly, the closer the stimulus is to a categorys ideal, or the more category exemplars the stimulus resembles, the more likely the observer will classify the stimulus as a member of that category (Kenney, Schwartz-Kenney, Blascovich, 1996). In this example, the category is a leader w ho is worthy of influence. It has also been argued that there is a possible feedback loop between employees categorization of a supervisor as congruent to the implicit leadership profile and their perceptions of the supervisors behavior (Lord Maher, 1993). Leadership categorization processes can have an influence on perceptions of actual leader behavior, but they are also likely to be affected by a persons general day-to-day experiences with a manager. It might be through their exposure to their actual leaders behaviors that employees engage in a categorization process and make active comparison between their actual supervisor and the implicit profile stored in memory. Furthermore, perceivers may then rely on existing categorizations and evaluations of congruence to further simplify the processes required to recognize leadership in others. Once someone is categorized as close or distant to a perceivers ILTs, the relevant leadership schema generates further assumptions about the persons behavior, affecting per ceptions of that behavior. Additionally, once people attach a label to an object, person, or event, this process of categorization guides how they interpret much of the subsequent information they encounter concerning that object, person, or event. Over time, this additional information tends to strengthen the original categorization (Lord Maher, 1993). Measure of ILTs and Effects on Validity To date, there is no single and widely accepted measure of implicit leadership theories. Several researchers have developed independent lists of traits to measure ILTs, but such lists are rarely replicated in other research, and they often use different clusters of traits. However, attributes such as intelligent, honest, dynamic, and motivated seem to exist in all the lists elicited, and a distinction between positive (prototypic) and negative (anitprototypic) traits has been made by most researchers (Epitropaki Martin, 2004; Offermann, Kennedy, Wirtz, 1994). In addition, ILT trait lists can be fairly long, as in Lord et al.s (1984) scale of 59 items, the Schein Descriptive Indexs (SDI; Schein, 1973) 92 item scale, and Offermann et al.s (1994) scale of 41 items (Epitropaki Martin, 2004). Other scales include the Campbell Leadership Indicator (CLI; Campbell, 1991), Kenney et al.s (1996) Leaders Described as Worthy of Influence, and House et al.s (1999) Culturally Endorsed Implicit Leadership Theories (CILTs). It is important to note here that leadership instruments as a whole have used both traits and behaviors to measure the construct. Specifically, the trait approach emphasizes attributes of leaders such as personality, motives, values, and skills, whereas the behavior approach emphasizes the importance of what leaders actually do (e.g., activities, responsibilities, functions, etc.; Yukl, 2002.). However, behavioral theories are often considered a stronger approach in leadership literature, and thus will be the approach taken in the present study. Specifically, a meta-analysis examining the Ohio State leadership behaviors of Consideration and Initiating Structure dimensions illustrated important support for the validity of Initiating Structure and Consideration in leadership research (Judge, Piccolo, Ilies, 2004). Generalizability of ILTs A variety of individual difference variables have been considered as potentially being related to ILTs. The present study primarily examines personality as individual differences in relation to ILTs. If individual differences do not affect ILTs, then the ILTs would be generalizable across different groups of people. Such generalizability has been examined in relation to some groups of people, including gender, type of role or job, and culture. However, the generalizability of ILTs is supported by contradictory evidence. Generalizability findings have mainly focused on the areas of consistency across gender (Deal Stevenson, 1998; Offermann et al., 1994), consistency from students to professional samples (Offermann et al., 1994), and consistencies across cultures (Bryman, 1987; House et al., 1999). All three areas are generally supported across the generalizability studies, as findings support claims that ILTs remain unaffected by individual and contextual differences, and the degree to which employees resort to categorical thinking and use ILTs as a map to evaluate their actual supervisors behavior does not vary as a function of context or individual differences (Epitropaki Martin, 2005). However, other findings argue that some variations do exist. For example, even though men and women have similar perceptions of prototypic leaders, men rated traits such as aggressive, competitive, and feelings not easily hurt higher than women did, and women rated traits such as being aware of others feelings, helpful, and self-confident higher than men did (Deal Stevenson, 1998). In other words, one groups ILT is not necessarily the same as another groups. In addition, there is much discrepancy in ILT ratings in the cross-cultural literature on leadership. For instance, Gerstner (1994) compared leadership prototypes of a business leader across several countries using an attribute-rating task. Results indicated that there are reliable differences in the prototypical leadership perceptions of members from the various countries sampled. Such findings were built upon other literatures asserting that perception is not solely an innate, physiological function of the cognitive process, but is also a subjective process reflecting the self, including cultural background (Markus Kitayama, 1991). Likewise, it was also previously found that characteristic traits of a leader in one culture may be very different from prototypical traits in another culture (Shaw, 1990). Additionally, Hofstede (1976) has proposed that the more similar two individuals are in terms of nationality, the more likely they are to perceive their social environment similarly. Overall, therefore, the generalizability claims of ILTs appear inconclusive, but pertinent information may be lacking. As such, further investigation should be undertaken. Additionally, other hypotheses by Eptriopaki and Martin (2005) examined the degree to which people use ILTs as a benchmark to make sense of their supervisors behavior, and suggested that it might change as a function of context. For instance, a limited capacity model has been applied to leadership perceptions and leader behavior ratings (Epitrokpaki Martin, 2005; Lord Maher, 1990). This model acknowledges peoples limited memory capacity and their reliance on general cognitive simplification mechanisms (such as ILTs), particularly in conditions of high cognitive load. Furthermore, it was also proposed that employees in jobs of high demand will rely more on their ILTs to rate the quality of the leader-member exchange (LMX) relationship they develop with their manager (Epitropaki Martin, 2005). It was further proposed that employees in exchanges of short duration would rely more on their ILTs to rate the quality of the relationship they develop with their supervisors than those in ex changes of long durations. Such variations have not been examined further, and there is still a clear need for future examination of all demographical variables. When considering the formation of ILTs, the present proposal will hold cultural differences constant, as only U.S. residents will serve as participants. Ethnicity and gender differences will be controlled. As described above, the definition and illustration of ILTs often refers to past experiences playing a role in the formation of such theories. However, studies have neglected to examine directly how ones past leaders have affected the formation process. The first hypothesis in the present study attempts to explain how the role of past experiences affects the ILT formation process by examining ratings of subordinates most and least effective leaders. Therefore, the following is hypothesized about the effects of experience on predicting implicit leadership theories: Hypothesis 1: Subordinates past experiences with various types of leaders will predict their implicit leadership theories. ILTs will be more strongly related to descriptions of ones most effective leader than to descriptions of ones least effective leader. The Formation of ILTs Expanded: The Effects of Personality The present study also examines how ILTs could be formed by personality. Historically, results of investigations relating personality traits to leadership have been inconsistent and often disappointing. Most reviews of the literature have concluded that the trait approach has fallen out of favor among leadership researchers. The original source of skepticism with the trait approach is often attributed to Stogdills (1948) influential review. Although Stogdill did find some consistent relations, he concluded, The findings suggest that leadership is not a matter of passive status or of the mere possession of some combination of traits (Stogdill, 1948, p. 66). As Bass (1990) noted, after Stogdills (1948) review, situation-specific analyses took over, in fact, dominating the field of leadership theory and research (p. 59). Many attempts have examined the personality traits in effective leaders (Hogan, 1994; Judge Bono, 2000; Tett Burnett, 2003), but the definition of what comprises an e ffective leader may be partly responsible for theory abandonment. Perhaps this is because there are unique differences among individuals personalities, it seems likely that individuals implicit leadership theories, or their expectations of an effective leader, will be differ from person to person, and these differences could be related to personality of the person whose ILT is examined. The ILTs approach reflects a resurgence of interest in leadership traits, but the emphasis is now placed on the perceptual processes underlying the conceptualization of leadership. When defining ideal leadership, it is important to remember that ones personality may affect what behaviors he or she thinks are most effective for leading others (Cucina, Vasilopoulos, Sehgal, 2005). A similar case has already been argued for the role that supervisors implicit theories play on performance appraisals (Borman, 1987; Cronbach, 1955; Uggerslev Sulsky, 2008). For instance, it has been found that raters often use their own distinctive dimensions to evaluate the performance of their employees (Borman, 1987). Such evidence has led to the implementation of frame-of-reference (FOR) training, or a training program that helps raters hold a common understanding of how to rate an organizations performance dimensions. FOR training has been shown to help increase the accuracy of performance ratings, thereby countering the effects of supervisors implicit theories of performance. Therefore, if it has been found that supervisors have implicit theories based on their own personal performance ideology, it only seems logical that subordinates could too have their own personal theories on the performance of leaders. Social Perceptions based on Similarity Some of the ILT literature has suggested that implicit theories can provide stability to dyadic relationships when they fulfill a similarity paradigm (Epitropaki Martin, 2001; Turban et al., 1990). For instance, the similarity-attraction paradigm (Byrne, 1971) states that similarity between individuals with regard to personal attributes or other characteristics is linearly related to interpersonal attraction, such that similarity gives rise to attraction while dissimilarity engenders repulsion. In the context of outcomes, it has been argued that interpersonal attraction fosters supervisor-subordinate compatibility and in turn, performance. For instance, the resulting interpersonal connection encourages accurate perception of supervisor performance expectations and, consequently, improved subordinate performance (Deluga, 1998). In addition, there is evidence that perceptions of similarity, both in a general sense (Wexley Pulakos, 1983) and with regard to specific attributes such as demographic characteristics (Epitropaki Martin, 2001), attitudes (Phillips Bedeian, 1994), values (Ashkanasy OConnor, 1997), competence (Kim Organ, 1982) and personality traits (Bauer Green, 1996; Keller, 1999), have been associated with perceptions of leader-member exchange quality. Moreover, it has been found that subordinates who regard themselves as being similar to their supervisors communicate more with them, and are rated as higher performers than those who do not (Turban et al., 1990). This may describe the previously mentioned gender differences found in terms of individual ratings on effective leader attributes. Other relationships, like mentorships, have also evidenced success based on attraction due to the similarity of race and gender, and perceived similarity of beliefs and attitudes (Turban, Dougherty, Lee, 2001). Overall, perceived similarity in a dyad (such as a supervisor-subordinate pair) is often related to favorable or pleasurable outcomes. Social Perceptions and Self-Serving Biases Individuals often believe that what they do, or how they contribute at work, is important. For instance, literature on positive self-illusions suggests that individuals may prefer leaders similar to the self, because such individuals tend to hold unrealistic, positive illusions of the self (Taylor Brown, 1988). Assuming that becoming a leader and leadership are construed as socially desirable, individuals may keep unrealistic expectations of assuming a leadership position and project their own traits onto idealized leadership images. In other words, as individuals tend to view themselves in an overly positive manner, believing that they themselves could be leaders, they may be most satisfied and most likely to want to continue working with leaders who are similar to them (Taylor Brown, 1988). They might judge such leaders to be more effective, which is similar to ILT perceptions. The social cognition literature also suggests that individuals engage in self-serving biases when describing attributes that are necessary for performance (Cucina, Vasilopoulos, Sehgal, 2005). It has been suggested that individuals tend to indicate that their own personality traits are those that are necessary for successful performance. Research in this domain initially (Lewicki, 1983) examined self-serving biases when looking at prototypes of social categories. It was evidenced that if an individual has a favorable impression of a target (e.g., a leader), then he or she will be more likely to assume that the target has the same characteristics as ones self. In addition, she will ascribe her own strengths and positive attributes to the target. While there is currently no available literature on self-serving biases and implicit leadership theories, several studies have examined how self-serving biases affect ratings of leadership orientation (Dunning, Perie, Story, 1991; McElwee, Dunning, Tan, Hollman, 2001). In these studies, participants tended to rate leaders as goal- or people-oriented depending on which orientation the participant possessed. Interestingly, such self-serving biases were only present when rating leadership performance, as opposed to leadership creativity (Dunning, Perie, Story, 1991). In addition, liking the target leader was not found to mediate or moderate the relationship between orientation of the leader and orientation of the participant (McElwee, Dunning, Tan, and Hollman, 2001). Perhaps the trait activation model (Tett Burnett, 2003) can assist in explaining how people develop the previously discussed self-biased belief systems, and consequently, their expectations. For instance, according to the trait activation model, a person will rate specific behaviors high on importance for successful performance, because those specific behaviors (and their underlying personality trait) are what make him or her effective. Because of such beliefs, those behaviors become valued by the individual. For example, a conscientious person will likely engage in organizational behaviors and work in a methodical fashion, because that is what he or she thinks is necessary in order to perform successfully on a job. When a persons traits are valued by ones organization (or perhaps ones leader), the person will probably experience more satisfaction with the job (Tett Burnett, 2003). In return, an individual may expect a leader to have similar traits as the self if these traits are seen as valuable and related to performance. Applying this rationale, it is hypothesized that a self-serving belief system will affect the formation of followers implicit leadership theories in terms of trait-based principles. Such a hypothesis lies on the foundation that personality is the underlying driving force behind how individuals behave, or why certain types of behaviors are valued. In other words, it is speculated that a subordinate will rate how an effective leader should perform (i.e., ILT), based on implicit assumptions about the behaviors that make the subordinate most effective. It is proposed that followers will hold implicit leadership theories based on a self-serving bias: that is, a bias that successf ul people are like themselves. Thus, followers will expect an effective leader to exhibit behaviors congruent with the followers own personalities. Hypothesis 2: Subordinates personalities will affect the formation of their implicit leadership theories. As such, subordinates will rate leaders who exhibit behaviors that correspond to their own personality traits as more effective than leaders whose behaviors do not correspond to the subordinates personality traits. Specifically: Subordinate conscientiousness is positively associated with rating a business leader high on initiating structure. Subordinate agreeableness is positively associated with rating a business leader high on consideration. Subordinate extraversion is positively associated with rating a business leader high on inspiring commitment. Subordinate agreeableness is positively associated with rating a business leader high on participative style. The rationale for this hypothesis rests on inferences about the relationships between specific personality traits and specific (leader) behaviors. Regarding Hypothesis 2a, the correspondence between scoring high on conscientiousness and rating a business leader high on initiating structure stems from the constructs definitions. For instance, because those who score high on conscientiousness are said to have high levels of thoughtfulness, with good impulse control and goal-directed behaviors (Goldberg, 1992), it seems feasible to assume that such persons would assign high ILT ratings for leader dimensions like initiating structure. Initiating structure refers to leader behaviors such as encouraging the use of uniform procedures and maintaining definite standards of performance (Stogdill, 1963), leader behaviors that parallel the definition of conscientiousness. Similarly, because those who score high on agreeableness are said to have high levels of trust, altruism, kindness, affection, and other prosocial behaviors, it is predicted that such persons would have high ILT ratings for the leader dimension of consideration. Consideration refers to leader behaviors such as treating all group members as ones equal and looking out for the personal welfare of group members, behaviors that seem to parallel the definition of agreeableness. Similarly, it is also predicted that those who score high on agreeableness will have high ILT ratings for the leader dimension participative style. Leaders with a participative style consult with their subordinates when facing problems and ask them for suggestions concerning how ideas should be implemented (Northhouse, 2004). Lastly, because those who score high on extraversion are said to have high levels of excitability, sociability, assertiveness, emotional expressiveness, and optimism, it is predicted that such persons would assign high ILT ratings for leader dimensions like inspiring commitment. Inspiring commitment refers to the leader behaviors of proposing change with great enthusiasm and exerting optimism when describing a difficult activity or mission for a work unit (Yukl, 1998). These behaviors seem to parallel the definition of extraversion. Leadership Self-Image Self-schemas are sets of cognitive structures that provide for individual expertise in particular domains of social behavior (Markus, Smith, Moreland, 1985). As schematicism increases in a conceptual domain, such as leadership, so does sensitivity to the behavior of others in that domain. Thinking of oneself as a leader may make ones own characteristics more salient for judging leaders. As a result, it will be important to note whether or not individuals see themselves as leaders, because it may affect if they expect a leader to be like them. That is, if the people think of themselves as leaders, then the Hypotheses 2 are more likely to be true. If, on the other hand, the person has no self-image as a leader and does not ever want to be a leader, the self-serving hypothesis might be less true. It would not be very self-serving to see another person being effective at something (e.g., leadership) as similar to oneself if leadership plays no part in ones self-image. Therefore, the relationships in Hypotheses 2 should be moderated by ones self-image regarding leadership. Hypothesis 3: Subordinate leadership self-image will moderate the relationship between subordinate personality and formation of implicit leadership theories. The relationship between personality and the formation of implicit leadership theories will be stronger when subordinates have a leadership self-image. A proposed model that is consistent with the preceding hypotheses can be viewed in Figure 1. By examining how ILTs may be formed, especially if ones past experience plays a role, important implications could be explored. For instance, Eptiropaki and Martin (2005) noted the potential role ILTs could play in the socialization of newcomers. As such, ILTs can potentially have a significant impact on the development of interpersonal relationships during the organizational socialization process (Eptiropaki Martin, 2005, p. 673). Subsequently, current training programs of leadership could seriously benefit by including some form of ILTs training to increase managers awareness of their subordinate ILTs. Figure 1. The effects of personality and experience on predicting implicit leadership theories. Experience with Behaviors of Multiple Leaders Personality of Subordinates Implicit Leadership Theory Leadership Self-Image Demographic Considerations Previously mentioned generalization issues will be considered when conducting the study. Gender effects on ILTs are of interest in past research, as are age and experience. Younger and less experienced employees might have different conceptions of ideal leadership from employees with more experience and more exposure to organizational leaders (Brown Lord, 2001). Age, education level, occupational title, and years employed will therefore be examined and controlled if necessary. In addition, ethnicity will be recorded, but the sample will be limited to United States residents to avoid previously found cross-cultural differences. Participative Leadership Even though there are often individual differences among people, maybe working individuals just generally prefer a participative leader over a certain type of leadership that is based on their personalities or past experiences. For instance, practicing participative leadership offers a variety of potential benefits, including likelihood to increase the quality of decision-making (Scully, Kirkpatrick Locke, 1995), to contribute to the quality of employees work life (Somech, 2002), and to increase employees motivation (Locke and Latham, 1990), commitment (Armenakis, Harris, Mossholder, 1993), and satisfaction (Smylie, Lazarus, Brownlee-Conyers, 1996), all of which suggest that subordinates react well to participation leadership. Participative leadership is based on the process of joint decision-making by two or more parties in which the decisions have future effects on those making them. The amount of participation by any individual is the amount of influence he or she has on the decisions and plans agreed upon (Vroom, 1959). Specifically, participative leadership involves the efforts of a supervisor to encourage and facilitate participation by subordinates when making decisions that could have been made by the manager alone. Participative leadership can take many forms, such as revising a tentative decision after receiving protests, asking for suggestions before making a decision, or allowing others to make a decision subject to a supervisors final authorization (Yukl, 2002). Field and House (1990) examined the validity of the Vroom-Yetton decision-making model of leadership, and found it was validated for managers, but not for subordinates. Although they were not explicitly studying ILTs, their results sug gest that because the model was developed and validated on managers perceptions of leader styles in relation to their perceptions of effectiveness, it is biased towards managers implicit leadership theories. Subordinates in their study, however, perc

Growth And Evolution Of Tourism Industry

Growth And Evolution Of Tourism Industry The fall of Roman Empire resulted into downfall of tourism, at least till the end of Middle East. The available facts reveal that Roman evinced interest in visiting temples, shrines, festivals and baths for health and amusement. The contours of Development underwent radical change at least till the 15th century. The trade and commerce along with religious activities gained the momentum but till the beginning of industrial revolution, tourism continued to remain the matter of pilgrimage. Of Course a number of developments took place between 15th and 18th centuries. Specially In the industrial world which raised the significance of specialization or expertise for excelling competition. This motivated the elite of the society to go abroad for enriching the knowledge, speeding up the learning cycle developing the excellence and making possible cross fertilization of thoughts and ideas. By the turn of 19th century, we find multifaceted development in transportation, communication and, tec hnological sophistication, which energized the process of industrial transformation. The tourism started developing as a business and the professional Travel agents started taking part in the process. With the beginning of the 20th century the process of invention and innovation stated gaining momentum which made ways for the development of infrastructural facilities and further added new dimensions in tourism business. No doubts, the World War I and World War II obstructed the flow of development but the second half of the 20th century proved to be golden age, since almost all the countries of the world started patronizing tourism as an important economic activity. Thomas cook was of the view that beauty is for the people. The opinion of Mr. Cook generated new dimension in the tourism business, which paved copious avenues for development of tourism as an industry. We cant deny that since the time immemorial travel has been first choice of masses , the qualitative improvement in the process could take place with the participation and co-operation of leading global organization , such as WORLD TOURIST ORGANISATION, PACIFIC AREA TRAVEL ASSOCIATION, INTERNATIONAL UNION OF OFFICIAL TRAVEL ORGANISATION or so With the development of a broader concept, the essence of Tourism further distilled and it was more holistic approach because in the general theory of tourism, Walter Hunziker and Kurt Kraph (1942) considered it both a human As well as economic activity. In 1974, Burkat and Medlik again brushed up this approach since they viewed tourism as a composite phenomenon embracing a whole range of different relationship between travelers and the host popu lation. The intensity foreign exchange requirement was found at its peak and the tourism appeared to all of them an important source to be tapped optimally. In the face of succulent benefit, the developed, less developed and even the Developing countries started assigning due weight age to the tourism industry in their national development agenda. We agree with this view that with tremendous Socio-economic potential, the tourism industry is considered to be an economic bonanza which paves avenues for the Development of a number of allied Industries, such as hotel, communication, banking transportation, trade and commerce or so. In addition, we also consider tourism a potential source for making possible world peace through mutual appreciation and international understanding. In the Indian perspective, we find Seventh Five Year Plan as watershed in the Development of tourism industry. For the first time, the vast potential of tourism as a foreign exchange earner and generator of employment opportunities was recognized. Several policy initiatives were taken to develop the tourism sector In the development of tourism, the public sector has made a significant contribution. Of late, the industry is equipped with a reasonable infrastructural base and is poised for a self-sustained growth. The future growth of tourism is required to be activated with the support of the private sector. The strategy for the development of tourism is required to be designed on the basis of low-cost economy, higher level productivity, efficiency in the use of infrastructure and sophisticated tourist facilities. The tourism industry bounced back from the global economic slowdown of last year with 2011 poised to show a positive growth number. As a matter of fact tourism is one of the largest industries globally, both in terms of size and employment ($5.4 trillion and 8.6 per cent of the global workforce.) Indian tourism industry contributes 6.4% of total GDP. This compares to 3.3% for automotives manufacturing, 4.5% for education and 3.7% for the mining industry. So INR 6.7 billion is contributing from tourism industry in India. PRODUCT PROFILE 1. Holiday as a Base Mass Market, Popular Market 2. Demand as base Primary, Secondary opportunity 3. Geography as a base Cities, Provinces, Regions, Countries 4. Psychography as a base Lifestyle, Personality Motive, Product, Knowledge. 5. Demography as a base Age, Sex, Occupation, Class, Religion. 6. Socio-economic of base Rich, Poor, Rural, Urban, Literate, Illiterate 7. Purpose as a base Business Travel, Cultural Tourism, Common Interest 8. Age as base Kids, Teens, Youths, Young, Married, Single. The holiday base focuses or attention on the fact that long-distance tours require availability of more leisure hours. The holiday market is classified in terms of demand. The different categories are, the mass market, the popular market and the individual holiday market. The mass market involves largest number of- vacationists who generally travel in long groups. They prefer all-inclusive tours. The users belong to the conservative group in which we find skilled and semi-skilled workers, blue-collar employees as the potential users. The users are generally class one and class two groups, pensioners and retired people. The individual holiday market involves social group-A7 like corporate chairman and senior executives. We find an apparent change in the behavioral profile of different categories in the holiday base. Another base is purpose in which we find business travel market, cultural tourism market, common interest tourism market and conference and convention. The demand base classifies markets into primary tourism market, secondary tourism and opportunity tourism. The geographic base includes lifestyle, personality, motives, product and knowledge. The demography base covers age, sex occupation, class and religion. The socioeconomic base makes classification like rich, poor, rural, urban, literate and illiterate. The age-base classifies markets for kids, teens, youths, young married and old people market. The aforesaid small segments simplify the task of tourist professionals. They know about the changing needs and requirements of different segments and innovate their strategic decisions accordingly. The development of marketing resources in tune with the changing levels of expectations make the ways for the stimulation of demand and simplify the task or marketers. It is in this context that we need to segment the market for the different allied industries helping the tourism industry in many ways. Designing a Package Tour In the process of formulating a sound product strategy, there are a number of factors to be given due attention. The designing of a package tour occupies a place of outstanding significance. For the profitable marketing of tourism services, it is pertinent that the different components of product are managed in a right fashion. This gravitates our attention on the offering of a package holiday product which necessitates management of the following factors. Destination The development of destination or tourist sites has a far-reaching impact on attracting the tourists. It is essential that destination or the tourist sites are easily accessible. This necessitates safe, fast and reliable transportation facilities hither and thither the tourist sites. To be more specific for promoting world tourism or attracting the foreign tourists, it is essential that the flying time is made proportionate. The site should be clean, the beaches should be sandy, sun-shine should be certain, the entertainment facilities at the site should be of quality the site should be safe to walk about, the local people should be friendly, the tour operator, the travel guides and others should have competence of speaking English and other regional languages. These facilities at the destination would add attractions. Management of Airport While managing the tourism product, the airports are required to be managed carefully. The airport should be local and convenient. The arrangement for car parking should be safe and adequate. It should not be congested but it should be spacious. In addition, the shopping facilities should be duty free. The airport should be clean and the vehicles should be available so that tourist doesnt face any trouble. Besides, the security arrangement should be tight to protect the passengers and their valuables. The aesthetic management occupies a place of significance in the very context. Airlines The flights should maintain the time schedule otherwise a dislocation may invite multifaceted problems, not only to the tourists but even to the airport authorities. The services should be reliable, good and polite. The sophisticated modern aircrafts of new generation should be included in the fleet to attract the tourists. The safety record should also be up to mark to remove the fear psychosis or psycho-fobia. Road and Rail Transportation For the tourists preferring to travel by buses of railways, it is significant that the stations are well managed. The booking and reservation counters should be managed scientifically. The enquiry should be controlled by efficient and well behaved staff. The safety arrangement should be adequate to counter the law and order signposts should be positioned at right places to help the travelling passengers. Hotels For managing the hotel services, it is essential that we are also careful to the hotel accommodation facilities. It is pertinent that hotels are easily accessible to the tourist sites or beaches or shops. The hotel personnel trustworthy and competent enough to speak English and other regional languages. They are supposed to be friendly. The management of facilities at hotels need due care. Though the standard of services, amenities and facilities depend upon the grade of hotels still it is essential that hotels offer the promised services to the users. The gap between the services-promised and service-offered should be bridge over. The hotels should be well maintained, the decor should be attractive; possibly a fair mix of eastern and western culture, the atmosphere should be calm and quiet; specially at the night time, public rooms should be adequate in number, the swimming pool should be neat and clean where inflow and outflow of water should be scientific to protect the danger of water contamination or pollution. There should be bar with good range of drinks. The bedrooms should be spacious in which balcony facilities should be made available. The childcare services should also be made available. Particularly at the beach resorts, the sea view should be possible with all rooms, in-room telephonic services should be available, in, and room-TV should be provided. There should be adequate cupboard space. The hangers should be attractive and artistic, toilets should be neat and clean and well equipped with east and west provisions. The lighting and ventilation arrangements should be adequate. The intensity of light at different points should be given due weightage. While managing hotels, the restaurants and cafeterias also need due care. The restaurants and cafeterias should be well managed. The food and drinks should have taste-orientation. The varieties of meals and drinks should be available. The seating arrangements should be comfortable, the meal should be flexible and the hotel personnel should be polite and friendly. Resort Representatives Regarding representatives of resort, they should be-knowledgeable friendly, accessible and competent. Miscellaneous In addition, the fellow travelers should be like-minded. The main thing is to make the tour pleasant and memorable. If the tourists have companionable fellow travelers, the journey would of course remain memorable. The aforesaid facts make it clear that being an amalgam of a number of industries and services, the tourism industry is known as a multi-segment industry in which the designing of a package which proves its instrumentality as a motivational force is found a bit difficult and challenging. It requires professional excellence so that we are in a position to assess the changing levels of expectations of the guests/tourists and all the required amenities and facilities are made available to help tourists to go to the destination, to enjoy and to come back safely. The tour operators and transport operators bear the responsibility of formulating a package tour and therefore they should have world class professional excellence to know and understand their changing needs and requirements. The services are related to a number of industries managed by others and therefore, the tour operators and transport operators managing the affairs should make it sure that whatever the promises they have made on behalf of hotels, airways, railways, roadways are not to be distorted. This is likely to project the image of tour operators and therefore a gap between the services-promised and services-offered would make the task difficult. It is against this background that designing of a package tour occupies a place of outstanding significance and all the allied industries making the package are required to be careful that they are not inviting degeneration. DEMAND DETERMINATION OF THE INDUSTRY You should know this fact that India is such a country which is rich in beautiful and amazing places. Some places are god created whereas some are manmade. But in spite of having unbeatable tourism potential, lesser number of tourists visit different destinations of India for which it is known. Though Government authorities are continuously paying attention towards the growth of the tourism industry but still it is lacking the attention of a good number of travelers. It is a fact that tourism industry is contributing a large amount to the total GDP of the country so governments want to attract a good number of tourists to India. But Indian tourism is lacking a good number of tourists. This may be due to various reasons. Some of the important reasons are: PRICE:- While time and price are self-explanatory, pricing is an art in itself and requires careful study as part of corporate policy. Price is the most powerful single variable in the marketing mix. But it does not operate in isolation. Value for money, albeit at different levels, is imperative. The product must be in demand or fashionable. It may be in short supply. Competition can be weak or strong, affecting achievable rates. The wide variety of airline and hotel rates for basically the same product at different times and conditions of sale reflect these characteristics. The market may be very price sensitive, as in the case of traffic from Northern European urban areas to Mediterranean beaches where there is a strong competition and a wide choice. There are also resorts and their establishments offering exclusive attractions, justifying a premium price. Price discounting and discrimination, and segmentation, in the market has always been a feature in travel services. The historic rule is to charge what the market will bear. The product is highly perishable and cannot be stored. It is necessary normally to appeal to a number of different segments. The railways invented first-, second- and third-class travel on scheduled services. When capacity exceeded demand, excursions and package tours were invented, the purpose being to sell to capacity and maximize the yield or return. Prices can be lowered segment by segment. But the marketing task is to ensure that cheap traffic does not drive out or invade the higher price and regular clientele. Airlines, for example, offer Saturday night stopover fares at half or less than full fare, on the assumption that full fare paying travelers, notably business travelers, will not stay over the weekend. In times of crisis or recession, special rates apply. In fact, recession has always been the mother of invention in tourism, giving rise to new initiatives that created new movement. Packages, cruises, specialist tours are all examples. Indeed many hotels have created events to attract business. Tactical plans must be highly flexible, short term and changing to meet the varying tides in demand, especially seasonal change. Economic and political perturbations usually unexpected, can alter trade suddenly and sometimes with great force. Currency devaluation, the Gulf War and the severe recession of 1991 in world markets are examples. The strategic plan with its long-term marketing implications needs consideration with the development plan. As marketing has a key role in product formulation the plan must select market segments. For example, it may give priority to quality and higher priced services, which will affect the investment in equipment to provide luxury items. It will be important to select segments that fit together. At a later stage in preparing the marketing plan, a detailed product/market match exercise will be necessary. The early resort promoters understood the selective approach very well. There were from their inception select resorts, usually quiet, small and patronized by the upper classes and higher spenders, and large, gregarious resorts which were popular centers for lower class visitors. THE SUPPLY DETERMINANTS:- There are supply determinants, ranging from absolutes such as under- or overcapacity to infrastructure weakness, e.g. transport bottlenecks and health and security dangers or political instability. Such factors can seriously limit or even destroy for a time a tourist destinations reception capacity. The marketing plan will take such factors into account. SEGMENTATION AND MOTIVATION:- Two key aspects of the third demand determinant consumer preference need careful study. Indeed the success of the whole marketing operation depends on this. They are segmentation and motivation. Tourisms mass expansion takes many different forms. It is a heterogeneous not a homogeneous movement, made up of many different types of traveler, seeking a wide range of tourism products. Thus the mass movement divides up into a number of segments, each differing from the others and needing a separate approach in sales, servicing and product provision. There are many possible divisions and subdivisions which can be made usefully in planning, but essentially the segmentation task is to identify specific groups in the travelling population interested in the same type of facility and service. The group identified must be large enough to warrant separate marketing or production attention, to make a specialist approach profitable. It must also be possible and practical to reach this section of the population in an effective way. This means that the group should not be too dispersed, and that there should be efficient media and distribution channels enabling the producer to reach the customer at a reasonable marketing cost. There are a number of criteria and categories in segmenting the total market. POOR ARRANGEMENTS OF TRANSPORTATION FOR THE TOURISTS:- Even after making lots of effort in improving qualities of the comforts for the tourists, it is said that the transportation system still requires to be improved. Tourists from outside India want to enjoy their tour with comforts in all respect and they are ready to pay for all these facilities. So it is essential to offer the best transport facilities for the tourists in order to attract more and more tourists. NON-STANDARDIZATION OF FARES AND RATES:- There are not any standard fares and rates for the transportation. Due to this tourists face lots of problem. Most of the travel agencies want to earn more and more especially from the tourists outside India. This ultimately gives a bad impression of India on outsider. IMPROPER MAINTENANCE OF HERITAGES:- With the advancement of tourism industry in India, numbers of heritages and resorts are built at different destinations in order to avoid inconvenience to the tourists. But most of the heritages are not maintained properly and these things are disliked by the tourists especially from outside India. LACK OF SECURITY AND CHANCES OF HARASSMENT:- If we talk about the security of the tourists, it is little bit weak. We cant say with full confidence that the tourists who tour to India are secured completely. LACK OF TRAINED AND PASSIONATE PROFESSIONALS:- Due to lack of trained and passionate professionals, tourists dont enjoy and get satisfied fully. LACK OF PROMOTIONAL STRATEGIES:- Indian tourism must adopt a good number of promotional strategies which will help in attracting a large number of tourists. ABSENCE OF HYGIENIC AMENITIES IN THE RESORTS AND HOTELS:- Though there are numbers of hotels and resorts but most of them lack in hygiene especially in the basic amenities which they offered to the tourists. PLAYERS IN THE INDUSTRY TOURISM COMPANIES MARKET SHARES Prime Travels Thomas Cook India SOTC tours Cox Kings Club Mahindra Holidays Kuoni Travel Group, India Galileo International Goodwind Travels Pvt. Ltd Airtravel Enterprise India Compass Tours India KEY ISSUES AND CURRENT TRENDS Tourism as one of the important foreign exchange earning industries has manifested great potential of growth under liberalized Indian economy. To attract the foreign tourists in India, liberal policies and reduction in taxes along with a comprehensive package for attracting tourist and foreign investment are the need of the hour. There is also a need to increase the governments role in promoting India as a brand. Just like exports and other sectors, tourism will grow only if the India brand is established in the global market. Hence, we must have an open mind on alliances with other countries, which might help in adopting better promotion strategies, marketing, services and packaging. Only overall growth can help in improving revenue generation, which needs to grow in line with the additional capacity being setup by the hospitality industry. Present Position of Tourism Industry in India:- It may be mentioned here that the Government of India had no Tourism Policy for more than forty years since the initiation of planning in the country in1951. Consequently, no efforts were made to lay down any sort of infrastructure for the promotion and development of tourism industry in the country. As a matter of fact, the country, after independence, had to pay serious attention towards increasing food production and laying down infrastructure for industrial development. On both the fronts, the country made tremendous progress and became leader of the developing nations. In order to achieve targets of faster economic growth, a number of Public Sector Enterprises were set up including India Tourism Development Corporation. However, no worthwhile progress was made in developing tourism in accordance with tourism potential of the country. It was only in 1992 that a tourism policy was laid down by the Government of India. As far as total revenue to the Government of India is concerned, tourism is the third largest source of foreign exchange earnings to the country after garments, gems and jewelry. India has tremendous potential to earn more foreign exchange because it has a huge and diverse potential for tourism ranging from pilgrimage tourism, beach tourism, eco-tourism, spiritual and health tourism to leisure and adventure tourism. The amazing diversity offers tourists everything they want to enjoy from a holiday but still we could not capitalize on the huge variety of amusements offered by our country. In order to attract the influx of tourists in the years to come, the Government of India has allocated US $590 million for the tourism sector for the period of 2002-07. While the global tourism market has shown negative growth, tourist arrivals in India have improved a little in the recent past. This is a positive indication but much more can be done to promote inbound tourism in India. In brief in I ndia, the tourists feel insecure and irritated on account of unwanted paper work, time consuming compliance of various rules and regulations, customs and immigration formalities, currency convertibility, beggars, tipping, bargaining, environmental pollution, transport problem, high rates and taxes etc. Beggars are such a nuisance that they are visible almost at all tourist spots, hotels, shopping centers, markets, monuments, places of worship, railway stations and bus stands. They constantly follow the visitors and there have been occasions that the tourists are so much irritated that they cut short their visits, shopping and spending. The tourists, thus, ignore India to avoid hassles and prefer other destinations where the specter of poverty and its manifestation like begging do not spoil their holiday spirit. Thus, Indias third largest foreign exchange earning industry is beset with a large number of problems. These problems have been examined in greater details in the pages that follow. RECENT CHALLENGES OF TOURISM INDUSTRY IN INDIA:- During the last few years tourists have witnessed good amount of violence and killing almost in every country including India. Kashmir, historically known as Heaven on the Earth, appears to be deserted on account of terrorism and violence. A large number of tourists, who used to visit and stay for a longer period in the Kashmir valley, do not tour the State of Jammu Kashmir for fear of violence and aggression. The business travelers also schedule their business trips only when it is absolutely essential. In fact, terrorism and violence have become the first and the foremost problem for tourists everywhere and India is no exception. The problem has assumed such alarming proportions that the world community must find its last in solution. The injustices done to the people in various parts of the world have result in great damage to tourism industry all over the world Tourists, especially of the developed countries; have been avoiding such destinations where there is any chance of viol ent activities against them. The problem has become so acute that the Governments in UK and the USA, in the recent past, had to issue travel advisories to their tourists. Though these travel advisories were, later on, withdrawn but the damage had already been done. India is not a preferred destination now for most of the Western tourists who spend, from our standards, a lot of money on tourism. Tourists are also irritated on account of unwanted paper work, time was the compliance of rules and regulations in India. In addition to customs and immigration formalities, language barriers are also the major problems faced by the foreign visitors. The difficulties of entry and exit too spoil half of the holiday charm. Again, our poor infrastructure, shortage of packaged tours, lack of connectivity between places, lack of transportation, our failure to create mass awareness throughout the world, polluted environment, discriminating economic and social behavior, inadequate and inexperienced staff, uneasy current convertibility and lack of multi-linguistic guides come in their way of pleasant tour and make the foreign tourists reluctant to come to India. PEST Analysis The Indian tourism industry has seen rapid growth in the last few years. Before any kind of analysis is undertaken, it is important to find out what are the main environmental influences that have lead to this growth and how the extent to which the changes are occurring. This is important because the change in these factors can have significant effect on the way the industry performs. These environmental influences can be analyzed by using the PEST Analysis. The PEST Analysis within its parameters indicates the importance of the political, environmental, social and the technological changes on the industry. a) Political / Legal Political The political factors are the main force of the industry. The Indian tourism industry is built on the backbone of Government support and the industry cannot sustain itself without it. The various archaeological sites and the places of historical importance, the roads and the railways are all in the hands of the Government. All the support services like the hotel industry, the airlines industry and the tourist operators to name some are heavily dependent on the support and the cooperation of the Government. The major reason as to why the tourist visits India is for the vast and rich heritage that our country has .That is under the control of the Government through the Archaeological Survey of India. Any policy change that comes into force can have dramatic effect on the way the industry players perform. For example, the Government charges high rates of taxes on the luxury and the star category hotels and this has always been a cause of disagreement between. The hotel association and h as been getting many incentives and many has been getting the government .There are many areas where the growth of tourism has not been rapid or has been dramatic fall because the political environment has been conductive. Examples are the North East for the former and Kashmir for the later. The neglect of the Government in Developing the North East leads to a situation where there is practically no tourism in the seven. Similarly, the political turmoil in the state of Kashmir has seen the virtual decimation of the flourishing tourism industry. The Heaven on Earth is A virtual hell for the industry. There has been a major change in the policies of the Government as regard to the industry. The hotel industry has been getting many incentives and many State Government are encouraging the growth of major hotels in their states. After years of tight control over airport infrastructure, Government has finally taken the decision to privatize the airport. Cobwebs and even rats were the frequenters in the arrival lounge at a major international airport of India . It is the only way to improve their condition. Tourism has been a Neglected sector in India .Though it was recognized As a priority sector in the Seventh Five Year Plan but hardly anything was done to promote this industry. Recently, the BJP Government has even dropped it from the National agenda. It is t